Unit 2
Q 1 Explain Construction and working of Ruby laser?
Answer:
The ruby laser is the first type of laser actually constructed, first demonstrated in 1960 by T. H. Maiman. The ruby mineral (corundum) is aluminium oxide (Al2O3 ) with a small amount (about 0.05%) of chromium ions (Cr3+) which gives it its characteristic pink or red color by absorbing green and blue light.
The ruby laser is used as a pulsed laser, producing red light at 6943Å. After receiving a pumping flash from the flash tube, the laser light emerges for as long as the excited atoms persist in the ruby rod, which is typically about a millisecond.
The ruby laser has following main parts:
1. The working substance (active medium)- is in the form of a rod of ruby crystal (10 cm in length, 0.8 cm in diameter) in which Cr3+ are active centres while Al and O2 are inert.
2. The resonance cavity- is made by silvering and polishing the ends of ruby rod. Fully reflecting plates at the left and a partially reflecting plate at the right, both optically plane and accurately parallel.
3. The optical pumping system -consists of a helical xenon discharge tube. It produces flash of few milliseconds.
Ruby laser uses a three-level pumping scheme. The xenon discharge generates a flash of white light for few milliseconds. The Cr+3 ions are excited to the E3 level by absorbing green and blue component of white light. From there the Cr+3 ions undergo non-radiative transitions and quickly drop to the metastable level E2. The metastable state has greater life time than E3. Therefore Cr+3 ions accumulate at E2. When more than half ions are accumulated at E2 the population inversion is established between E2 and E1. A chance spontaneous emission leads to chain stimulated emission. Red light (of wavelength 6943 Å) emerges from the front face.
Q 2 Explain Numerical Aperture (NA) of Fibre?
Answer:
Numerical Aperture (NA)
The Numerical Aperture (NA) of a fibre is defined as the sine of the largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflectance in the core. Rays launched outside the angle specified by a fibber’s NA will excite radiation modes of the fiber. A higher core index, with respect to the cladding, means larger NA. However, increasing NA causes higher scattering loss from greater concentrations of dopant. A fiber's NA can be determined by measuring the divergence angle of the light cone it emits when all its modes are excited.
Qualitatively, NA is a measure of the light gathering ability of a fiber. It also indicates how easy it is to couple light into a fiber.
Q 3 what are Use of laser?
Answer:
1. Welding and Cutting: The highly collimated beam of a laser can be focused to a microscopic dot of extremely high energy density for welding and cutting. The automobile industry makes extensive use of carbon dioxide lasers with powers up to several kilowatts for computer-controlled welding on auto assembly lines.
2. Communication: The lasers have significant advantages in communication because they are more nearly monochromatic and this allows the pulse shape to be maintained better over long distances when used in optical fibre.
3. Barcode Scanner: Supermarket scanners typically use helium-neon lasers to scan the universal barcodes to identify products. The laser beam bounces off a rotating mirror and scans the code, sending a modulated beam to a light detector and then to a computer which has the product information stored.
4. Laser Printing: The laser printer has in a few years become the dominant mode of printing in offices. The laser is focused and scanned across a photoactive selenium coated drum where it produces a charge pattern which mirrors the material to be printed. This drum then holds the particles of the toner to transfer to paper which is rolled over the drum in the presence of heat.
5. CD’s and Optical Discs: The detection of the binary data stored in the form of pits on the compact disc is done with the use of a semiconductor laser.
6. Surveying and Ranging: Helium-neon and semiconductor lasers have become standard parts of the field surveyor's equipment. A fast laser pulse is sent to a corner reflector at the point to be measured and the time of reflection is measured to get the distance.
7. Laser cooling: The use of lasers to achieve extremely low temperatures has advanced to the point that temperatures of 10-9 K have been reached
8. Laser Spectroscopy: Laser spectroscopy has led to advances in the precision with which spectral line frequencies can be measured, and this has fundamental significance for our understanding of basic atomic processes.
9. Holography: Holography is "lens less photography" in which an image is captured not as an image focused on film, but as an interference pattern at the film.
10. Medicine: Lasers have been used for various medical procedures such as dermatology and cosmetic surgery, wound healings, nerve stimulation, dentistry ophthalmology applications for vision corrections and corneal deceases. And many other therapeutic procedures. Combining the nanoparticles, diode lasers have been also used for cancer therapy, bio-sensing, bio-imaging, drug delivery and diagnostics of cancer cell.
Q 4 Define following?
A. Population inversion
B. Optical fibre
Answer:
Population inversion:
1. Energy is applied to active medium raising active centres to excited energy level.
2. These atoms spontaneously decay to a relatively long-lived, lower energy, metastable state
3. A population inversion is achieved when the majority of atoms have reached this metastable state
4. Lasing action occurs when an electron spontaneously returns to its ground state and produces a photon.
5. If the energy from this photon is of the precise wavelength, it will stimulate the production of another photon of the
Same wavelength and resulting in a cascading effect.
6. The highly reflective mirror and partially reflective mirror continue the reaction by directing photons back through the medium along the long axis of the laser.
7. The partially reflective mirror allows the transmission of a small amount of coherent radiation that we observe as the “beam”.
8. Laser radiation will continue as long as energy is applied to the lasing medium.
Optical fibre:
The optical fibre is a cylindrical, long, thin transparent structure made of glass and plastic, which is designed to guide the light wave from one end to another. The light inside the fibre is guided on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
Optical fibres are widely used in fibre-optic communications to send information (data).
The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts the core, the cladding, and the coating or buffer which are coaxially arranged. The innermost region is called the core, the light in the fibre travels only in the core. The core is surrounded by cladding, which is responsible for keeping the light inside the core. The refractive index of core (n1) is greater than of cladding (n2). The outermost region is called buffer or sheath, which protects the core and cladding from external abrasions
Q 5. What is acceptance angle?
Answer:
The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined based on a purely geometrical consideration (ray optics): it is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the core. The sine of that acceptable angle (assuming an incident ray in air or vacuum) is called the numerical aperture, and it is essentially determined by the refractive index contrast between core and cladding of the fiber, assuming that the incident beam comes from air or vacuum:
Here, ncore and ncladding are the refractive indices of core and cladding, respectively, and n0 is the refractive index of the medium around the fiber, which is close to 1 in case of air.
Q 6. Define Mono chromaticity?
Answer:
Highly Monochromatic:
The light from a laser typically comes from one atomic transition with a single precise wavelength. So, the laser light has a single spectral color and is highly monochromatic light available
Q.7 Explain total internal reflection?
Answer:
The phenomenon which occurs when the light rays travel from a more optically denser medium to a less optically denser medium.
Consider the following situation. A ray of light passes from a medium of water to that of air. Light ray will be refracted at the junction separating the two media. Since it passes from a medium of a higher refractive index to that having a lower refractive index, the refracted light ray bends away from the normal. At a specific angle of incidence, the incident ray of light is refracted in such a way that it passes along the surface of the water. This particular angle of incidence is called the critical angle. Here the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected back to the medium. We call this phenomenon total internal reflection.
Notations Used in The Total Internal Reflection Formula and Critical Angle
- r is the angle of refraction
- i is the angle of incidence
- n1 is the refractive index in medium 1
- n2 is the refractive index in medium 2
- Ө is the critical angle
Following are the two conditions of total internal reflection:
- The light ray moves from a more denser medium to less dense medium.
- The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
When the incident ray falls on the cladding, it suffers total internal reflection as the angle formed by the ray is greater than the critical angle. Optical fibres have revolutionised the speed with which signals are transferred, not only across cities but across countries and continents making telecommunication one of the fastest modes of information transfer. Optical fibres are also used in endoscopy.
Q 8 What is holography explain?
Answer:
In conventional photography, a negative is made first and using it a positive print is produced later. The positive print is only a 2D record of light intensity received from 3D object. Only intensity of light recorded and information of phase is lost. Denis Gabor introduced a new technique where intensity and phase both are recorded. This technique is called holography. Holography is done in two stages:
1.construction of image(freezing)
A weak but broad beam of laser light is splitted into wo beams by means of beam splitter. One beam directly goes to the photographic film is called as reference beam and second beam illuminates the object called as object beam. The light scattered by the object moves towards the photographic plate and interferes with the reference beam. The photographic plate carrying complex interference pattern of the object is called hologram. The object is stored in the hologram in the form of interference pattern. Whenever required the object can be viewed by illuminating the hologram as shown in the figure 
2.Reconstruction (unfreezing): A laser beam identical to the reference beam is used for reconstruction of the object. This read out bream illuminates the hologram at the same angle as the reference beam. The hologram acts as a diffraction grating and secondary waves from hologram interferes constructively in certain directions and destructively in other directions. They form a real image in front of the hologram and a virtual image behind the hologram at the original site of the object. An observer sees light waves diverging from the virtual image. An image of the object appears where the object once stood and the image is identical to what our eyes would have perceived in all its details of the object.
Q 9 Define pumping in laser?
Answer:
Laser pumping is the act of energy transfer from an external source into the gain medium of a laser. The energy is absorbed in the medium, producing excited states in its atoms. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in the ground state or a less-excited state, population inversion is achieved. In this condition, the mechanism of stimulated emission can take place and the medium can act as a laser or an optical amplifier. The pump power must be higher than the lasing threshold of the laser.
The pump energy is usually provided in the form of light or electric current, but more exotic sources have been used, such as chemical or nuclear reactions.
Q 10 What is fractional refractive index change?
Answer:
The fractional difference Δ between the refractive indices of the core and the cladding is known as the fractional refractive index change.
It is given by
The value of Δ is always positive because n1 must be greater than n2 for the total internal reflection condition.
In order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre, Δ<<1 and Δ is of the order of 0.01
Unit 2
Q 1 Explain Construction and working of Ruby laser?
Answer:
The ruby laser is the first type of laser actually constructed, first demonstrated in 1960 by T. H. Maiman. The ruby mineral (corundum) is aluminium oxide (Al2O3 ) with a small amount (about 0.05%) of chromium ions (Cr3+) which gives it its characteristic pink or red color by absorbing green and blue light.
The ruby laser is used as a pulsed laser, producing red light at 6943Å. After receiving a pumping flash from the flash tube, the laser light emerges for as long as the excited atoms persist in the ruby rod, which is typically about a millisecond.
The ruby laser has following main parts:
1. The working substance (active medium)- is in the form of a rod of ruby crystal (10 cm in length, 0.8 cm in diameter) in which Cr3+ are active centres while Al and O2 are inert.
2. The resonance cavity- is made by silvering and polishing the ends of ruby rod. Fully reflecting plates at the left and a partially reflecting plate at the right, both optically plane and accurately parallel.
3. The optical pumping system -consists of a helical xenon discharge tube. It produces flash of few milliseconds.
Ruby laser uses a three-level pumping scheme. The xenon discharge generates a flash of white light for few milliseconds. The Cr+3 ions are excited to the E3 level by absorbing green and blue component of white light. From there the Cr+3 ions undergo non-radiative transitions and quickly drop to the metastable level E2. The metastable state has greater life time than E3. Therefore Cr+3 ions accumulate at E2. When more than half ions are accumulated at E2 the population inversion is established between E2 and E1. A chance spontaneous emission leads to chain stimulated emission. Red light (of wavelength 6943 Å) emerges from the front face.
Q 2 Explain Numerical Aperture (NA) of Fibre?
Answer:
Numerical Aperture (NA)
The Numerical Aperture (NA) of a fibre is defined as the sine of the largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflectance in the core. Rays launched outside the angle specified by a fibber’s NA will excite radiation modes of the fiber. A higher core index, with respect to the cladding, means larger NA. However, increasing NA causes higher scattering loss from greater concentrations of dopant. A fiber's NA can be determined by measuring the divergence angle of the light cone it emits when all its modes are excited.
Qualitatively, NA is a measure of the light gathering ability of a fiber. It also indicates how easy it is to couple light into a fiber.
Q 3 what are Use of laser?
Answer:
1. Welding and Cutting: The highly collimated beam of a laser can be focused to a microscopic dot of extremely high energy density for welding and cutting. The automobile industry makes extensive use of carbon dioxide lasers with powers up to several kilowatts for computer-controlled welding on auto assembly lines.
2. Communication: The lasers have significant advantages in communication because they are more nearly monochromatic and this allows the pulse shape to be maintained better over long distances when used in optical fibre.
3. Barcode Scanner: Supermarket scanners typically use helium-neon lasers to scan the universal barcodes to identify products. The laser beam bounces off a rotating mirror and scans the code, sending a modulated beam to a light detector and then to a computer which has the product information stored.
4. Laser Printing: The laser printer has in a few years become the dominant mode of printing in offices. The laser is focused and scanned across a photoactive selenium coated drum where it produces a charge pattern which mirrors the material to be printed. This drum then holds the particles of the toner to transfer to paper which is rolled over the drum in the presence of heat.
5. CD’s and Optical Discs: The detection of the binary data stored in the form of pits on the compact disc is done with the use of a semiconductor laser.
6. Surveying and Ranging: Helium-neon and semiconductor lasers have become standard parts of the field surveyor's equipment. A fast laser pulse is sent to a corner reflector at the point to be measured and the time of reflection is measured to get the distance.
7. Laser cooling: The use of lasers to achieve extremely low temperatures has advanced to the point that temperatures of 10-9 K have been reached
8. Laser Spectroscopy: Laser spectroscopy has led to advances in the precision with which spectral line frequencies can be measured, and this has fundamental significance for our understanding of basic atomic processes.
9. Holography: Holography is "lens less photography" in which an image is captured not as an image focused on film, but as an interference pattern at the film.
10. Medicine: Lasers have been used for various medical procedures such as dermatology and cosmetic surgery, wound healings, nerve stimulation, dentistry ophthalmology applications for vision corrections and corneal deceases. And many other therapeutic procedures. Combining the nanoparticles, diode lasers have been also used for cancer therapy, bio-sensing, bio-imaging, drug delivery and diagnostics of cancer cell.
Q 4 Define following?
A. Population inversion
B. Optical fibre
Answer:
Population inversion:
1. Energy is applied to active medium raising active centres to excited energy level.
2. These atoms spontaneously decay to a relatively long-lived, lower energy, metastable state
3. A population inversion is achieved when the majority of atoms have reached this metastable state
4. Lasing action occurs when an electron spontaneously returns to its ground state and produces a photon.
5. If the energy from this photon is of the precise wavelength, it will stimulate the production of another photon of the
Same wavelength and resulting in a cascading effect.
6. The highly reflective mirror and partially reflective mirror continue the reaction by directing photons back through the medium along the long axis of the laser.
7. The partially reflective mirror allows the transmission of a small amount of coherent radiation that we observe as the “beam”.
8. Laser radiation will continue as long as energy is applied to the lasing medium.
Optical fibre:
The optical fibre is a cylindrical, long, thin transparent structure made of glass and plastic, which is designed to guide the light wave from one end to another. The light inside the fibre is guided on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
Optical fibres are widely used in fibre-optic communications to send information (data).
The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts the core, the cladding, and the coating or buffer which are coaxially arranged. The innermost region is called the core, the light in the fibre travels only in the core. The core is surrounded by cladding, which is responsible for keeping the light inside the core. The refractive index of core (n1) is greater than of cladding (n2). The outermost region is called buffer or sheath, which protects the core and cladding from external abrasions
Q 5. What is acceptance angle?
Answer:
The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined based on a purely geometrical consideration (ray optics): it is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the core. The sine of that acceptable angle (assuming an incident ray in air or vacuum) is called the numerical aperture, and it is essentially determined by the refractive index contrast between core and cladding of the fiber, assuming that the incident beam comes from air or vacuum:
Here, ncore and ncladding are the refractive indices of core and cladding, respectively, and n0 is the refractive index of the medium around the fiber, which is close to 1 in case of air.
Q 6. Define Mono chromaticity?
Answer:
Highly Monochromatic:
The light from a laser typically comes from one atomic transition with a single precise wavelength. So, the laser light has a single spectral color and is highly monochromatic light available
Q.7 Explain total internal reflection?
Answer:
The phenomenon which occurs when the light rays travel from a more optically denser medium to a less optically denser medium.
Consider the following situation. A ray of light passes from a medium of water to that of air. Light ray will be refracted at the junction separating the two media. Since it passes from a medium of a higher refractive index to that having a lower refractive index, the refracted light ray bends away from the normal. At a specific angle of incidence, the incident ray of light is refracted in such a way that it passes along the surface of the water. This particular angle of incidence is called the critical angle. Here the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected back to the medium. We call this phenomenon total internal reflection.
Notations Used in The Total Internal Reflection Formula and Critical Angle
- r is the angle of refraction
- i is the angle of incidence
- n1 is the refractive index in medium 1
- n2 is the refractive index in medium 2
- Ө is the critical angle
Following are the two conditions of total internal reflection:
- The light ray moves from a more denser medium to less dense medium.
- The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
When the incident ray falls on the cladding, it suffers total internal reflection as the angle formed by the ray is greater than the critical angle. Optical fibres have revolutionised the speed with which signals are transferred, not only across cities but across countries and continents making telecommunication one of the fastest modes of information transfer. Optical fibres are also used in endoscopy.
Q 8 What is holography explain?
Answer:
In conventional photography, a negative is made first and using it a positive print is produced later. The positive print is only a 2D record of light intensity received from 3D object. Only intensity of light recorded and information of phase is lost. Denis Gabor introduced a new technique where intensity and phase both are recorded. This technique is called holography. Holography is done in two stages:
1.construction of image(freezing)
A weak but broad beam of laser light is splitted into wo beams by means of beam splitter. One beam directly goes to the photographic film is called as reference beam and second beam illuminates the object called as object beam. The light scattered by the object moves towards the photographic plate and interferes with the reference beam. The photographic plate carrying complex interference pattern of the object is called hologram. The object is stored in the hologram in the form of interference pattern. Whenever required the object can be viewed by illuminating the hologram as shown in the figure 
2.Reconstruction (unfreezing): A laser beam identical to the reference beam is used for reconstruction of the object. This read out bream illuminates the hologram at the same angle as the reference beam. The hologram acts as a diffraction grating and secondary waves from hologram interferes constructively in certain directions and destructively in other directions. They form a real image in front of the hologram and a virtual image behind the hologram at the original site of the object. An observer sees light waves diverging from the virtual image. An image of the object appears where the object once stood and the image is identical to what our eyes would have perceived in all its details of the object.
Q 9 Define pumping in laser?
Answer:
Laser pumping is the act of energy transfer from an external source into the gain medium of a laser. The energy is absorbed in the medium, producing excited states in its atoms. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in the ground state or a less-excited state, population inversion is achieved. In this condition, the mechanism of stimulated emission can take place and the medium can act as a laser or an optical amplifier. The pump power must be higher than the lasing threshold of the laser.
The pump energy is usually provided in the form of light or electric current, but more exotic sources have been used, such as chemical or nuclear reactions.
Q 10 What is fractional refractive index change?
Answer:
The fractional difference Δ between the refractive indices of the core and the cladding is known as the fractional refractive index change.
It is given by
The value of Δ is always positive because n1 must be greater than n2 for the total internal reflection condition.
In order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre, Δ<<1 and Δ is of the order of 0.01
