Unit 2 | unit 2 language varieties

ENG

Unit 2Language Varieties Q1) What is a standard language?A1) A standard language could be a form of language that's employed by governments, in the media, in schools and for international communication. There are different standard varieties of English in the world, such as British English, North American English, Australian English and Indian English. Although the most important difference in these standard varieties is their pronunciation. There are also a few differences in grammar between them. Typically, varieties that become standardized are the local dialects spoken in the centers of commerce and government, where a requirement arises for a variety which will serve more than local needs. Standardization typically involves a set orthography, codification in authoritative grammars and dictionaries and public acceptance of those standards. A standard written language is typically termed by the German word Schriftsprache. Standard English isn't entirely uniform around the globe: for instance, American users of standard English say the first floor and i have just gotten a letter and write center and color, while British users say ground floor and I have just got a letter and write center and color. But these regional differences are few in comparison with the very high degree of agreement about which forms should count as standard. Nevertheless, standard English, like all living languages, changes over time. Q2) What are the characteristics of standard language accoding to sociolinguistics?A2) In sociolinguistics, social dialect could be a form of speech related to a specific socio-economic class or vocation within a society. Also known as sociolect. Douglas Biber distinguishes two main sorts of dialects in linguistics: "geographic dialects are varieties associated with speakers living in a particular location, while social dialects are varieties associated with speakers belonging to a given demographic group (e.g., women versus men, or different social classes)" (Dimensions of Register Variation, 1995). A sociolect is distinct from a dialect because socio-economic class instead of geographical subdivision substantiates the unique linguistic features.The standard variety of a given language, for instance, British English is considered to be the upper-class sociolect of a given central area or regiolect. Therefore, Standard British English was thought of as the English of the upper classes (also called the Queen's English or Public-School English) of the Southern, more particularly, London area." (René Dirven and Marjolyn Verspoor, Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. Q3) What is a nonstandard language? Give examples.A3) A nonstandard language or dialect is a dialect that does not have the institutional support or sanction that a standard dialect has. Like any dialect, a nonstandard dialect has its own vocabulary and an internally consistent grammar and syntax; and that specific form of the language may be be spoken using one or a range of accents. Therefore, a dialect which is labelled as "nonstandard" is not necessarily intended to imply that the dialect is incorrect, incomplete, or inferior, just that it is not the socially perceived norm or mainstream for public speech. In fact, linguists consider all nonstandard dialects to be grammatically fullfledged forms of a language. Conversely, even some prestige dialects could also be considered nonstandard.A written form for a nonstandard dialect is quite common in the English language, although it's then to be assumed that the orthography is unstable and/or unsanctioned, and that it is not orderly supported by governmental or educational institutions. When used in quotes and as a contrastive feature in literature, the term eye dialect may be used for nonstandard phonemic spelling.Examples of non-standard British English

The verb "to be" which is often considered the most complex in English, but some non-standard usages seem to be attempting to regularise it:

we was is employed in place of "we were". Especially by footballers, as in "we was

robbed."

if i was you is employed in place of "If I were you".

they was waiting for us is employed in place of "they were waiting for us".

ain't is often used - although in a jocular vein - rather than (be) not (and also (have) not)

innit = isn’t it? – It’s cold today, innit?

I be is is employed in place of "I am" in some regional dialects.

gotten isn't employed in British English but is extremely common in American English . It is

noteworthy that Oxford A-Z of English Usage somewhat claims that it often considers the use as nonstandard, while the American MerriamWebster simply notes its existence.

don’t for doesn’t - as in the Beatles song "Ticket to Ride": "she’s got a ticket to ride and she don’t care."

Q4) What are the main differences between the varieties of human language?A4) In sociolinguistics, language variety could be a general term for any distinctive type of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists prefer to use "language variety" (or simply variety) as a substitute term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including dialect, idiolect, register, and social dialect. In the Oxford Companion to English Language (1992), Tom McArthur identifies two broad forms of language variety: “(1) user related varieties, related to particular people and sometimes places. and (2) use-related varieties, related to function, like legal English (the language of courts, contracts, etc.) and literary English (the typical usage of literary texts, conversations, etc.)”.Language scholars have used the term variety in recent decades to label a subdivision within a language. Varieties may relate to an area or community (as with Indian English and two of its sub-varieties, Anglo-Indian English and Gujarati English), to uses (as with legal English and advertising English), and to combinations of the two (as with British legal English and American advertising English). In recent years, variety has proved to be a reasonably safe term, allowing language scholars to avoid being too specific about styles of speech and usage on occasions when being specific isn't necessary and/or when there's a risk of being charged with discrimination against a group by calling its usage ‘a dialect’. The negative baggage that attaches to the present term in English is bigger than any occasional positive connotations it should have.However, it is important to note that the term dialect fails when discussing English as a world language. Although it's done sterling service in detailing, for instance , regional variations in Old, Middle, and Modern English in Britain, and for regional forms of English in the United States (notably Northern, Midland, and Southern), it's entirely inadequate in other situations, as for instance two of the most vigorous US 'Englishes': African-American English (which has never neatly fitted the traditional dialect criterion of regionality) and therefore the entity just about covered by the term 'Spanglish': a hybrid of Spanish and English employed by Spanish-speaking immigrants from Latin America in many parts of the country. Q5) What do you mean by ‘dialect’? Give examples of different dialects.A5) Dialect is basically a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most frequently to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may additionally be defined by other factors, like socio-economic class or ethnicity. A dialect which is related to a specific socio-economic class may be termed a sociolect, a dialect which is related to a specific ethnic group is termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect can be termed a regiolect.The other usage of the term “dialect”, often deployed in colloquial settings, refers (often somewhat pejoratively) to a language which is socially subordinated to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate or genetically associated with the standard language, but not actually derived from the standard language. However, it's not an actual form of the “standard language” or dominant language, but instead is a separate, independently evolved but often distantly related language. In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the standard language cannot itself be considered a “dialect”, because it is the dominant language in a particular state or region, whether in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political status, official status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above.Examples of Dialect from LiteratureThere are lots of dialect examples in literature that show the most effective usage of dialect as a literary device. One of them is Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn where he used exaggerated dialect to differentiate between the characters:Example 1

Jim: “We’s safe, Huck, we’s safe! Jump up and crack yo’ heels. Dat’s de good ole Cairo at las’, I jis knows it.”

Huck: “I’ll take the canoe and go see, Jim. It mightn’t be, you know.”Example 2The characters shown in literature who are are less educated and less sophisticated are commonly shown to use a much stronger dialect. At certain points you might even need translations. Such as:

Walter: Reckon I have. Almost died first year I come to school and et them pecans — folks say he pizened ‘em and put ‘em over on the school side of the fence.

(To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee)Translation in Standard English: I suppose I have. The first year I came to school and ate those pecans, I almost died. Some people accuse him [Mr. Radley] of poisoning them and keeping them over on the school side of the fence. Q6) What is idiolect? Give examples.A6) Idiolect is a person's distinctive and unique use of language, including speech. This unique usage encompasses vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Idiolect is the form of language unique to an individual. This differs from a dialect, which is a standard set of linguistic characteristics shared among some group of individuals. Idiolect is an individual’s distinctive and unique use of language, including speech. Examples of Idiolect:Example 1“Ever since i was a child, folks have thought they had me pegged, because of the way i am, the way I talk. And they're always wrong”. (Philip Seymour Hoffman as Truman Capote in the film Capote, 2005)Example 2“Zerts are what I call desserts. Tray-trays are entrees. I call sandwiches sammies, sandoozles, or Adam Sandlers. Air conditioners are cool blasterz, with a z. I don't know where that came from. I call cakes big ol' cookies. I call noodles long-ass rice. Fried chicken is fri-fri chicky-chick. Chicken parm is chicky chicky parm parm. Chicken cacciatore? Chicky catch. I call eggs pre-birds or future birds. Root beer is super water. Tortillas are bean blankies. And I call forks . . . food rakes.”(Aziz Ansari as Tom in Parks and Recreation, 2011) Q7) What are the main differences between British and American English?A7) The British actually introduced the language to the Americas after they reached these lands by sea between the 16th and 17th centuries. At that point, spelling had not yet been standardised. It took the writing of the primary dictionaries to set in stone how these words appeared. The dictionary was compiled by London-based scholars in the UK. Meanwhile, within the United States, the lexicographer was an individual named Noah Webster. Allegedly, he changed how the words were spelled to make the American version different from the English as a way of showing cultural independence from its country of origin.In terms of speech, the differences between American and British English actually materialized after the primary settlers arrived in America. These groups of individuals spoke using what was called rhotic speech, where the ‘r’ sounds of words are pronounced. Meanwhile, the upper classes in the UK wanted to differentiate the way they spoke from the common masses by softening their pronunciation of the ‘r’ sounds. Since the elite even in the past were considered the standard for being fashionable, people began to repeat their speech, until it eventually became the common way of speaking in the south of England. Spelling differencesBritish and American English have some spelling differences. The following table consists some major spelling differences in British and American English.

British English	American English
-oe-/-ae- (e.g. anaemia, diarrhoea, encyclopaedia)	-e- (e.g. anemia, diarrhea, encyclopedia)
-t (e.g. burnt, dreamt, leapt)	-ed (e.g. burned, dreamed, leaped)
-ence (e.g. defence, offence, licence)	-ense (defense, offense, license)
-ell- (e.g. cancelled, jeweller, marvellous)	-el- (e.g. canceled, jeweler, marvelous)
-ise (e.g. appetiser, familiarise, organise)	-ize (e.g. appetizer, familiarize, organize)
-l- (e.g. enrol, fulfil, skilful)	-ll- (e.g. enroll, fulfill, skillfull)
-ogue (e.g. analogue, monologue, catalogue)	-og (e.g. analog, monolog, catalog) *Note that American English also recognizes words spelled with –ogue
-ou (e.g. colour, behaviour, mould)	-o (e.g. color, behavior, mold)
-re (e.g. metre, fibre, centre)	-er (e.g. meter, fiber, center)
-y- (e.g. tyre)	-i- (e.g. tire)

Vocabulary differencesThe Americans and the British also have some words that differ from one another. The table below lists a number of the everyday objects that have different names, depending on what type of English you're using.

British English	American English
trousers	pants
flat	apartment
bonnet (the front of the car)	hood
boot (the back of the car)	trunk
lorry	truck
university	college
holiday	vacation
jumper	sweater
crisps	chips
chips	French fries
trainers	sneakers
fizzy drink	soda
post-box	mailbox
biscuit	cookie
chemist	drugstore
shop	store
football	soccer

Grammar differencesAside from spelling and vocabulary, there are a number of grammatical differences between British and American English. For example, in American English, collective nouns are considered singular (e.g. The band is playing). In contrast, collective nouns may be either singular or plural in British English, although the plural form is most frequently used (e.g. The band are playing).

The British are also more likely to use formal speech, like ‘shall’, whereas Americans favour the more informal ‘will’ or ‘should’.

Americans, however, still use ‘gotten’ as the past participle of ‘get’, which British have long ago dropped in favour of ‘got’.

‘Needn’t’, which is often employed in British English, is rarely, if at all used in American English. In its place is ‘don’t need to’.

In British English, ‘at’ is the preposition in regard to time and place. However, in American English, ‘on’ is employed rather than the former and ‘in’ for the latter.

Even though there are certain differences between British and American English, the key takeaway is that the two have more similarities. Accidentally using one instead of the other won't automatically result in miscommunication. Americans and Brits can usually communicate with one another without an excessive amount of difficulty. Q8) What is formal language?A8) Formal language:

Formal language is more impersonal than informal language. It is used when writing for professional or academic purposes like university assignments and in organizational communication. Formal language refrains from the use colloquialisms, contractions or first-person pronouns like ‘I’ or ‘We’. Formal communication is the exchange of official information that flows along the different levels of the organizational hierarchy and conforms to the prescribed professional rules, policy, standards, processes and regulations of the organization.Examples:

Improvements cannot be introduced due to funding restrictions.

The results are not believed to be accurate.

The research project will not continue next year.

Q9) What is informal language?A9) Informal language:

Informal language is more spontaneous and casual than formal language. It is typically employed when communicating with friends or family either in writing or in oral conversations. It is used when writing personal emails, text messages and in some personal business correspondence as well. The tone of informal language is more personal and then formal language. Informal communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein the information is exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the prescribed official rules, processes, system, formalities and chain of command.Examples:

The enhancements can’t be introduced because of funding restrictions.

I don’t believe that the results are accurate.

The research project won’t continue next year

Q10) What are the main differences between formal and informal language?A10) Formal language is generally employed in situations that are serious or that involve people we don’t know well. Informal language is more commonly utilized in situations that are more relaxed and involve people we know well. Formal language is more common in the form of writing; informal language is more common in the form of speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for instance, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages. There are examples where spoken English could be very formal, for example, during a speech or a lecture. Most uses of English are neutral; i.e., they are neither formal nor informal. Formal language and informal language are related to particular choices of grammar and vocabulary. Relative clauses without a relative pronoun, ellipsis and contractions are more common in informal language.Given below are few examples of differences between formal and informal language:

Contractions

Informal: The improvements canʼt be introduced because of funding restrictions.Formal: Improvements cannot be introduced because of funding restrictions.Informal: I donʼt believe that the test was fair.Formal: The test was not believed to be fair.Informal: The project wonʼt continue three years from now.Formal: The project will not continue three years from now.

Phrasal verbs

Informal: He has a really stuck-up personality.Formal: He has a really egotistical personality.Informal: She immediately got over her illness.Formal: She immediately recovered from her illness.Informal: The results of the previous exams were mixed up.Formal: The results the previous exams were jumbled.

Slang/Colloquialisms

Informal: The mob was very rowdy during the protest against the newly elected chief minister.Formal: The crowd was very violent during the protest against the newly elected chief minister.Informal: Lecturers still count on students to use correct grammar in assignments.Formal: Lecturers expect students to use correct grammar in assignments.Informal: It was raining cats and dogs.Formal: It was raining very heavily.

First person pronouns

Informal: I considered various research methods for the study.Formal: Various research methods were considered for the study.Informal: We believe the formula is unsustainable.Formal: The formula is believed to be unsustainable.Informal: During the interview I asked students about their experiences.Formal: During the interview students were asked about their experiences.

Relative Pronoun

Informal: The famous football team whom we saw at the airport flew to Europe.Formal: The famous football team we saw at the airport flew to Europe.Informal: The secretary I talked to yesterday was very rude.Formal: The secretary whom I talked to yesterday was very rude

Sign Up