Unit III

Population Ecology

Q1) What is population ecology? Write the social measures to control population.                                                                                                                                                           5

A1) Ecologists are studying different aspects of the ecosystem. One of the most important aspects is population ecology. This area of ​​research is related to populations and how they interact with the environment.

Populations are all individuals of the same species within the ecosystem community. Ecologists are interested in population growth, population size variability, population spread, and other interactions with or between populations and other populations.

Ecologists may also study different groups of populations that are not located in the same area but interact at specific times throughout the year. If the groups in this population are of the same species and can still be mated, they are metapopulations. Individuals within a metapopulation can move from one population to another, which helps stabilize the size of the entire population.

Population ecology can be defined as studying the factors that affect a population and how live and non-living factors affect population size, density, and variance. In addition, it belongs to the study of the factors why population changes over time.

Social measures to control population are:

Population explosion is a social problem and is deeply rooted in society. Therefore, it is necessary to make efforts to eliminate the social evils of this country.

1. Minimum age of marriage:

Whether you become pregnant depends on the age of your marriage. Therefore, the minimum age for marriage should be raised. In India, the minimum age for marriage is 21 for men and 18 for women. This law should be enforced and people should be informed through public relations.

2. Improving the status of women:

Discrimination against women continues to this day. They are trapped in her four walls of the house. They are still limited to child rearing and childbirth. Therefore, women should be given the opportunity to develop socially and economically. Free education should be given to them.

3. Dissemination of education:

The spread of education changes people's perspectives. Educated men like better to delay marriage and adopt small family norms. Educated women are health conscious and help reduce fertility by avoiding frequent pregnancies.

4. Recruitment:

Some parents have no children, despite the high cost of treatment. It is advisable to adopt an orphan. It is also beneficial for orphans and couples of children.

5. Changes in social outlook:

People's views on society must change. Marriage should not be considered a social binding. Don't look down on women who have no problems.

6. Social security:

More and more people should be covered under the social security system. These facilities don't want children anymore so that they don't depend on others for old age, illness, unemployment, etc.

Q2) What are the measures to control population?    8

A2.Measures taken to control population are:

A. Social measures:

Population explosion is a social problem and is deeply rooted in society. Therefore, it is necessary to make efforts to eliminate the social evils of this country.

1. Minimum age of marriage:

Whether you become pregnant depends on the age of your marriage. Therefore, the minimum age for marriage should be raised. In India, the minimum age for marriage is 21 for men and 18 for women. This law should be enforced and people should be informed through public relations.

2. Improving the status of women:

Discrimination against women continues to this day. They are trapped in her four walls of the house. They are still limited to child rearing and childbirth. Therefore, women should be given the opportunity to develop socially and economically. Free education should be given to them.

3. Dissemination of education:

The spread of education changes people's perspectives. Educated men like better to delay marriage and adopt small family norms. Educated women are health conscious and help reduce fertility by avoiding frequent pregnancies.

4. Recruitment:

Some parents have no children, despite the high cost of treatment. It is advisable to adopt an orphan. It is also beneficial for orphans and couples of children.

5. Changes in social outlook:

People's views on society must change. Marriage should not be considered a social binding. Don't look down on women who have no problems.

6. Social security:

More and more people should be covered under the social security system. These facilities don't want children anymore so that they don't depend on others for old age, illness, unemployment, etc.

B. Economic measures:

The economic measures are as follows.

1. Expansion of employment opportunities:

First and foremost, the most important measure is to increase employment in rural areas as well as in urban areas. In rural areas, disguised unemployment is common. Therefore, efforts are needed to move the unemployed from rural areas to urban areas. In this step you can see the population increase.

2. Agriculture and industrial development:

If agriculture and industry develop properly, many people will find employment. As their income increases, they improve their standard of living and adopt small family norms.

3. Standard of living:

Improving living standards act as a deterrent to the norms of large families. People prefer to have a small family in order to maintain a higher standard of living. According to A.K, Das Gupta is Rs. The average reproduction rate of her 100 children a month is 3.4, and the income is more than rupees. She has 300 animals a month and has a reproduction rate of 2.8 children.

4. Urbanization:

Urban people have been recorded to have lower fertility rates than those living in rural areas. Therefore, urbanization should be encouraged.

C. Other measures:

Other measures include the following.

1. Late marriage:

Whenever possible, marriage should be solemn at the age of 30. This shortens the reproductive period of women and reduces their fertility. She has set a minimum government marriage age of 21. For men and her 18 years old.for women.

2. Self control:

According to some experts, self-control is one of his powerful ways to control the population. This is an ideal and sound approach and people should follow. Helps lower the birth rate.

3. Family planning:

This method means a family of choice, not by chance. Birth rates can be adjusted by applying precautionary measures. This method is widely used. The success of this method depends on the availability of cheap contraceptive devices for contraception. According to Chander Shekher, "Hurry up the primary child, delay the second child and avoid the third child."

4. Entertainment facilities:

Birth rates will drop if there are entertainment facilities like movies. People can use the theatre, sports, dance and more.

5. Public relations:

Communication media such as television, radio and newspapers are a good way to disseminate planned family benefits, especially to uneducated and illiterate people in rural and underdeveloped areas.

6. Incentive:

Governments can be given different types of incentives to adopt contraceptive measures. Other institutions such as financial incentives and vacations and promotions can be extended to the working class, which adopts the norms of small families.

7. Employment of women:

Another way for her to check the population is to provide employment to women. Women need to be given incentives to serve in different areas. Women are also actively participating in the competition test. As a result, their numbers in education, medical care, banking, etc. are growing rapidly. Simply put, take every possible measure to control population growth.

Q3) What is urbanization?        5

A3) Urbanization is the procedure via way of means of which populace actions from rural to city regions, permitting towns and cities to grow. It also can be stated to be a slow growth withinside the range of humans residing in cities and towns. It is closely encouraged via way of means of the concept that towns and cities attain monetary, political and social mileage in comparison to rural regions.

Therefore, urbanization may be very not unusualplace in growing and evolved countries, and an increasing number of humans generally tend to method cities and towns to obtain "privileged" social and monetary offerings and advantages. I have. These consist of social and monetary advantages together with higher education, scientific care, hygiene, housing, commercial enterprise possibilities and transportation.

According to Wikipedia

"Urbanization (or urbanization) refers to migration from rural to city regions, a declining percentage of rural humans, and the manner societies adapt to this change, in most cases greater. It's the procedure via way of means of which cities and towns are shaped and grown as many humans stay and begin operating withinside the center. "

Most humans flow to towns and cities due to the fact they see rural regions as locations with hard and backward / primitive lifestyles. Therefore, whilst transferring to a greater evolved area (metropolis or city), the instant end result is urbanization.

It generally contributes to the improvement of land to be used in industrial actual estate, social and economic agencies, transportation, and home buildings. Ultimately, those sports reason a few urbanization problems.

Q4) What are the physical and social effects of urbanization on society? 8

A4) The impact of urbanization can be seen as society becomes more and more urbanized, with a social focus on achievement rather than attribution. Urbanization has brought about many changes in different areas of urban life: physical, social, psychological and cultural aspects. These aspects are discussed in detail here.

1. Physical aspects

1. Growth of cities
2. Homelessness
3. Suburbanization

1. Family
2. Crimes
3. Unemployment
4. Poverty
5. Prostitution
6. Gambling
7. Beggary
8. Conflicts
9. . Physical aspect:

Industrialization has led to an increase in the urban population, which is creating more pressure on urban lands. The result is lack of space, congestion and overcrowding. City officials now find it difficult to even provide basic amenities to city migrants and existing populations.

Basic equipment includes consumer goods (food and water), shelters and protection from infectious diseases. Another major consequence of population growth is the imbalance between commodities and the supply and demand of commodities. Prices are rising exorbitantly due to inflation and a lack of adequate supply.

1. Urban growth:

The reduction in transportation and communication costs and the promise of a better life in the city are attracting more and more people to the city. As a result, cities in all directions have evolved unplanned, from misery towards the sky to taller building-shaped lions that can accommodate more homes. Early cities were known for their shared conditions of planning and better living. However, today's cities are becoming more popular due to their vices and lack of basic equipment.

From the perspective of individual migrants, it is true that cities offer opportunities and competition. Not everyone who comes in for these opportunities will succeed. As a result, slums, vices, drug trafficking, prostitution, begging and robbery are on the rise.

b.    Homeless:

Homelessness is another annoying feature of city life. The housing problem in the city is very serious. Many who cannot afford high rent have few shelters or illegally occupy public property. In some other cases, people live in crowded and dilapidated apartments. Some others who cannot afford to pay for accommodation in the city center are forced to travel long distances, which takes most of their time and energy. Therefore, homelessness is a serious problem in many of the world's largest cities today.

c.     Suburbanization:

The continued expansion of cities is strengthening growth on the outer edge of cities with undeveloped and unused land. This circumferential and radial growth led to the growth of the suburbs. The suburbs are formerly village areas, and cities in the midst of expansion are swallowing these villages. They are characterized by a relatively low housing density. The suburbs are physically separated from the central city, but can be identified by the fact that they rely on the central city for employment, services, goods, and management.

Suburbs have been distinguished based on the function of residential suburbs and employment suburbs. Residential suburbs provide residents with only living space, and these residents commute to the city center to earn a living, but in the employment suburbs, also known as satellite cities, some industrial parks work. Formed when providing housing to personnel. Over a period of time, townships were built in the area, creating suburbs.

Ii.     Social aspect:

Increasing the number of inhabitants living in a village beyond a certain limit affects the relationship between them and the character of the city. The greater the number of individuals participating in the process of interaction, the greater the potential for differentiation between individual paths, professions, cultural lives and ideas, beliefs and values. Increase.

These fluctuations cause the spatial separation of individuals. Due to such diverse origins and backgrounds, there is no relative, neighbor, or emotional bond between these people to live together for generations. In such situations, competition and formal control mechanisms replace the bonds of solidarity that connect people and village societies.

Another important consequence of population growth and the resulting increase in density is the lack of personal mutual acquaintance between inhabitants, usually accompanied by increased emotions in the neighborhood. Therefore, increasing numbers are accompanied by changes in the character of social relationships, lack of anonymity, and fragmentation of relationships.

High mobility in urban life allows individuals to play diverse roles. This in turn leads to instability and instability throughout the world. Therefore, city dwellers are in temporary habitats, do not create binding traditions or emotions, and are rarely found in the neighborhood. All of this has led to the growth of many social problems.

1. Family:

The family as an organization is greatly influenced by changes in social structure. Changes in social structure affect the status of the family. Many basic functions of the family are currently performed by secondary education institutions and associations. For example, parenting and education used to be the main functions of the family. But in the heart of today's city, you need a double-income family.

This need has forced women to leave home and start earning money. Not surprisingly, parenting functions are transferred to secondary institutions such as daycare centers or baby care centers.

Changes in women's status and roles in modern times have also changed family composition. With the development of the industry, her role is not limited to the four walls of the house, but she has to go out and work. This change has changed the relationship between husband and wife. They are now more friends and friends.

This change in the role of women is also affecting family structure. Today, we can find single-parent families, that is, either mothers or fathers, alone with their children. Many other unusual types of families are also being born rapidly. Such a family is one in which the partners just live together, that is, they are together without getting married.

b.    Crime:

Urbanization, rapid economic liberalization, widespread political turmoil, fierce conflicts, and inadequate and inappropriate policies are the basis of crime in urban areas. In addition, poverty and inequality caused by rising expectations of the enrichment of some members of society and a sense of moral anger have contributed to increasing and increasing the level of crime.

c.     Unemployment:

Urbanization can lead to unemployment. People are drawn to urban areas with the false hope of better living standards, better medical care and work opportunities. In fact, the large influx of people into cities only exacerbates the situation, and people find themselves in a deteriorating world. Very few people bring good luck, and the rest have to find ways to eat and sleep while waiting for a chance. This leads to the growth of crime and slums, one of the most obvious effects of urbanization.

Another reason for the increasing unemployment in urban areas is due to mechanization. Machines have replaced humans, and only a few have jobs who can learn how to use these machines. The rest retrain the unemployed. Thus, unemployment is becoming a bigger problem in cities than in rural areas.

Unemployment is always a problem as more people in the city compete for less work. People who can't find a job find themselves wandering around the slums looking for income-generating activities. If you don't have access to work, you end up in poverty.

d.    Poverty:

Gillin and Gillin define poverty as follows: Fully functioning according to the standards of the society to which he belongs.

Urban poverty has a profound impact on India's economic growth. Many people who come to the city for a livelihood are in poverty. The result is begging and prostitution. The government has adopted many plans to overcome this major problem.

e.     Prostitution:

Urbanization unknowingly leads to trafficking in women and children. It is a social sign that arises from the process of transformation, which is exacerbated and exacerbated by the phenomena of poverty, unemployment, widening urban-rural disparities, sexism and intensifying migration. The big picture of the practice remains unclear, as few women and children are ready or able to report what happened to police, women's groups and NGOs.

While it is very difficult to estimate the number of women and children trafficked each year, it is also recognized that trafficking of women and children is becoming an increasingly problematic issue. Women and children are often taken from poor rural areas to economically advanced urban areas, some of which are kidnapped from their home villages and sold in large cities. Some women and children are trafficked across national borders for prostitution and adoption.

Poverty is emerging in a new way, with much of the burden on women and children. Many young women have strong financial incentives to find employment in urban areas where the standard of living is higher than their home village, or have to travel to large cities that have been inaccessible or promised for years. It's not surprising that you have to. Marriage.

According to recent studies, sexual exploitation in towns and cities occurs primarily in nightclubs, bars, beer halls and other entertainment venues, rather than in places established for prostitution. Poverty, lack of education and employment opportunities are some of the main reasons young women are involved in prostitution. Widespread concerns about HIV / AIDS are driving demand for young girls.

Not only are young women vulnerable to physical abuse, they are also at a much higher risk of getting sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV / AIDS. Most of them are from poorly educated regions and lack the knowledge and confidence to protect themselves from these illnesses.

In addition to the need for employment, early marriage, divorce and childhood sexual abuse are one of the factors driving girls into prostitution.

Violence or threats of violence are used to control them. Victims find it difficult to approach or seek justice in court. Intermediaries, sometimes relatives, go to the village to contact families with young daughters and provide them with the opportunity to work in other parts of the country. Therefore, potential victims do not belong only to the poorest people in poor families.

The risk of traffickers is not great and the punishment given to women is not severe enough that it can make huge profits by driving women into prostitution. Even with considerable awareness of this practice, there are few successful convictions. Smuggling women and children is a much lower risk activity for criminals than other forms of crime such as drug smuggling.

Women's Transport King's business may be managed by criminal groups operating in recruiting or destination cities. They are highly organized, highly violent, and often involved in other criminal activities.

f.       Gambling:

Gambling is the betting of money or other valuables on the outcome of a game, race, contest, or other event. In general, few societies have fully approved gambling, but gambling has not been eradicated.

Gambling is an activity organized in many urban centers. People living in cities are enthusiastic about making money. Therefore, they are ready to adopt any means of making money. Gambling gives them the opportunity to make money instantly or quickly. The hope of making money easily is what makes gambling attractive.

If the attraction of gambling is to earn money, the thrill is at risk of losing your bet. For many, gambling is an addiction. It is prevalent among all classes of society. Also, many women are gambling, not limited to any particular gender.

Gambling has been criticized as a virtue since Buddha's time, but it is still widespread in many cities around the world and is as popular today as it was then.

g.    Begging:

Many people who move to the center of the city in search of better opportunities become begging. They are actually the financial burden of the country. Begging is economically unproductive and remains largely a social parasite. Apart from the economic side, Vegary also has a social and moral side. Most beggars remain in an unhealthy environment where they develop some or other illnesses. Therefore, they become supple, which means spreading the infection in the city.

Beggars employ a variety of begging methods. They try to portray a pitiful state before people empathize and arouse their religious feelings: purpose. Some people can get a fake certificate. This indicates that some tragedy has happened to the person holding that particular certificate. Therefore, alms must give him her.

You can also find amputated beggars on the roadside, showing the amputated organs from passers-by and demanding money. Some claim to be victims of several disasters such as earthquakes and floods. In India, there are also religious beggars, that is, beggars who try to make a living in the name of religion. Such beggars are usually found near temples and shrines and seek money and alms in the name of religion.

h.    Conflict:

Every community has some tension and confusion. Conflict is the basic reason for social tension in society. There are three types of conflicts within the community. One individual conflicts with another. Conflicts within the family that affect children and conflicts between different groups. Conflicts between two individuals do not affect society as long as one individual claims support for one group and another claims support for another group. Group conflicts can occur for a variety of social, economic, political, religious, linguistic, and regional reasons. Some form of conflict between individuals and societies, or within families, always exists in a dynamic society. However, as long as the limit is not exceeded, it will not affect the stability of society.

However, racial violence, terrorism, community violence, and violence between different castes are very common today in almost every city.

Q5) What are the psychological, political, cultural, environmental and economic effects of urbanization on society?                                                                      8

A5) Psychological effects:

The level of assimilation in urban areas is related to the psychological aspects of coordination that acquire the values, meanings, emotions, prejudices, or ideologies of that particular community. The problem of assimilation is more serious for migrants as they usually come from different backgrounds and struggle to settle in the cities they have migrated to. The rapid changes in the economic zone that accompany globalization and liberalization are changes in the economic zone, and globalization and liberalization have brought about many changes that affect the lives of people living in urban areas.

For example, India is only after 1991. Many business process outsourcing (BPO) companies are starting to function in almost every major city center. As a result, many young people are shifting to these organizations due to higher wages and better working conditions, but the problem here is that these organizations have employees working longer hours, sometimes night shifts. That's what I'm expecting. These changes are affecting the social life of individuals, including family life.

As a result, the stress caused by competition, work, work and the pressure of alcoholism is commonplace in these urban centers.

1. Alcoholism:

Alcoholism is a chronic illness that manifests itself as a behavioral disorder. It is characterized by repeated drinking of alcoholic beverages to the extent that it exceeds social customs. In essence, alcoholism is measured not by the amount of alcohol consumed, but by how one uses alcohol to address problems in one's life and how it affects physical health.

Chronic alcohol abuse can damage all important organs in the body. It damages the muscle cells of the heart, leading to heart failure and death. This organ is the most vulnerable to the harmful effects of alcohol, as alcohol is broken down in the liver and its main function is to neutralize and remove certain toxic compounds. If abuse continues, its harmful effects can lead to brain damage and mental illness.

Certain organizations encourage young people to participate in beer drinking contests that offer attractive prizes to winners as part of a social gathering. Such organizations unknowingly start innocent young people. Many have never drank any form of alcoholic beverage. With an increasing rank of alcoholism, it will ultimately lead to all sorts of social and family problems in their families and the general community.

Accidents caused by alcohol consumption are common in many cities today. Some people go out because they consume too much during parties or at liquor stores. Such people either hit a wall and cause an accident, or hit a passerby and do harm. The government's current "Drunk Driving Ban" policy is certainly commendable, but it must be adhered to for the safety of all road users.

Mushroom-growing pubs in town invite our young people to indulge in drinking habits. For the lower class of society, Tody provides the comfort that is very necessary to relax. However, a significant number of people over-absorb brews, resulting in drunken and noisy and domestic violence. But authorities are worried about the consumption of cheap and illegal liquor (distilled under the most unsanitary conditions) by inadvertent drinkers, causing many deaths.

b.    Stress:

Stress is the "waste" that the body experiences as it constantly adapts to a changing environment. It has physical and emotional effects on people and can produce positive or negative emotions. As a positive effect, stress helps force people to act. It also brings new consciousness and exciting new perspectives. As adverse effects, it causes distrust, rejection, anger, depression and health problems such as headache, upset stomach, rash, insomnia, ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease and stroke.

Stress is a common phenomenon in urban life, especially in this era of globalization and urbanization. People are facing stress in the office while commuting or at home.

Living under constant stress has affected the lives of people in many cities, including their health. Therefore, many cities leave their homes at a young age and find comfort on the hillsides of some distant hills.

Cultural effects:

Urban influences can occur in different ways in different parts of a region or sub-region as the culture of the city spreads across the political boundaries of the city. Cultural content can be disseminated by human careers that convey ideas, techniques, skills and behaviors through relationships or through mass transport and communication. Villagers who have lived or worked in the city and returned to Villae are a career that allows them to share some of the culture they have learned through city dwellings with their relatives and friends.

This process of diffusion is reversed by the flow of culture from the outside to the city. As rural hinterlands are urbanized in a cultural and social sense, so are urban communities. This is partially achieved by the presence of people who carry their values ​​and behavior patterns when they visit and live in rural and village areas. Urban community. However, the outflow of urban culture is generally large and its impact is more pervasive, at least dramatic and obvious, than the impact of rural culture on urban people and their social lives. This process continues to interact.

Occasionally, diffusion can occur through the systematic efforts of the government. Of particular note are the community development programs undertaken by several developing countries. The mass media also plays an important role in the dissemination of culture.

1. Impersonality of social relations:

As cities and towns grow and develop, so do the people who live in them. Cities don't really destroy intimate relationships or community identities, but because of long-distance commuting, people have little time to develop social relationships. In addition, modern cities are actually a mosaic of communities, providing protection and support to their members.

Therefore, community-based relationships develop to the extent that people may not know who their neighbors are, but what is happening to new immigrants or members of one or the other of their own communities. I know Therefore, neighborhood relationships in the heart of the city are of interest to members of their own community, not their direct neighbors.

Immigrants maintain impersonal relationships with others in their neighborhood because they always feel that they cannot be together for years, that is, in the same neighborhood for years. So urban people don't have a sense of intimacy with their neighbors after spending many years together. They are more interested in their own well-being. Therefore, a mechanical way of life is developed without any kind of personal relationship with anyone other than those who are physically or economically involved.

Relationships in the city center are dominated by self-interest. Therefore, it is only formal and is strictly guided by a particular purpose. As soon as that purpose or purpose is achieved or terminated, the relationship ends and one person does not have to establish a relationship with another.

b.    Mechanical way of life:

In the heart of the city, everything is dominated by time, and no one can disobey its instructions. Life in the city is so fast that it depends entirely on time, so you don't have time to spend on friendship or dating. In this way, everyone in the city lives mechanically.

c.     City outlook:

In urban areas, people's views and attitudes toward things are less determined by heredity than by the environment. There are differences in the outlook for rural and urban areas. Changes, especially technological developments and economic factors, make people look at things from a different angle. In urban areas, educational background, social background, profession and profession employed, and housing conditions play important roles in developing attitudes toward life.

The main characteristics of the city's outlook include individualism, dynamism, liberalism, tolerance and coexistence. In urban areas, individuals lead independent lives according to their likes and dislikes. He / she sees things from an individualistic angle. Neither family nor society dominates his / her outlook.

Dynamism means accepting change quickly. In urban societies, people change their way of life and quickly embrace new trends and fashion. That is, the people of the city are ready to change according to the new type.

Urban people are liberated people. Therefore, they have a more flexible and generous outlook. In addition, people from different regions move to and settle in cities. This naturally provides them with a change to mix with people from different regions with different cultures. Therefore, not only is it liberal, but it also develops a tolerant attitude. Therefore, they all coexist happily in one place.

Economic effects :

The economic impact of urbanization on villages can be seen in two ways: the economic impact of industrialization and the economic impact of the movement of residents in search of livelihoods.

1. Industrialization:

The explosion or rapid urbanization process of urban growth that created the modern industrial city relied on the process of industrialization. Therefore, urbanization was developed adjacent to cheap energy sources, first on the basis of water, electricity, then coal, and where rivers, lakes, or canals allowed the assembly and distribution of bulky raw materials. , Turns out to be closely related to industrialization and finished products, later rail-enhanced transport patterns.

The relationship between industrialization and urbanization was so close that in a review of American cities in the 19th century, Goheen said that "industrialization is almost synonymous with the growth of modern cities." This assessment was shared by 19th century American critics, including: Frederick Engels, "Industry and commerce have reached the most developed stages in big cities, so here we can see more clearly the impact of industrialization on wage earning."

b.    Migration:

Geographical movement or movement of people within the country is a demographic response to regional disparities in socio-economic development. Areas with high incomes and wages and well-developed economies tend to attract people, especially the economically active population, from areas with relatively low levels of development and, as a result, low wages and incomes. .. Migration forms the very basis of the urbanization process and is recognized as the main mechanism by which urban areas continue to grow.

Migration causes large numbers of people from areas with low economic opportunities to central areas with high economic opportunities, concentrated in rural areas and small urban settlements, and in large cities with a population of over 1 million. I moved to.

Political effects:

In urban areas, you can find many new immigrants. Since these newcomers do not have the same social ties as their original inhabitants, they are increasingly relying on developing informal social networks for their survival. In the process, some local traditional organizational forms are formed. Various forces are trying to abuse these organizations for personal or political gain.

Environmental effects :

Today's urban environment is not a natural environment. It is an artificial environment created by humans. Due to the high population density and rapid industrialization, the urban environment is heavily polluted. The problem of environmental pollution poses a serious threat to the urban environment. The unsanitary situation in which the majority of urban people live due to the high cost of installing anti-pollution equipment is expected to lead to paradoxical traps for poverty and pollution in the long run.

Q6) What are communicable diseases? How are they caused?  5

A6) Infectious illnesses are illnesses that tour among people and animals. People occasionally consult with infectious illnesses as "infectious illnesses" or "infectious illnesses."

Pathogens along with micro organism, viruses, fungi, and protests motive infectious illnesses.

A man or woman can broaden an infectious sickness after being inflamed with a pathogen. This can show up with inside the following ways:

1. Direct touch with human beings who've the pathogen
2. Contact with infected beverages along with blood, mucus and saliva
3. Inhale infected droplets from every other man or woman's cough or sneeze
4. Bites from animals and bugs sporting pathogens
5. Consume infected water and food

When a pathogen enters the human body, it starts to replicate. After that, the man or woman can also additionally start to revel in signs and symptoms.

Some signs and symptoms are the direct end result of pathogens detrimental cells with inside the body. Others are because of the body's immune reaction to infection.

Infectious illnesses are commonly slight and signs and symptoms development after some days. However, a few may be severe and life-threatening.

A healthy person can get infected after contracting a pathogen like bacteria, virus or fungi. There is a wide range of communicable diseases that can be spread through these pathogens. While the primary cause of every communicable disease remains a pathogen, there are different ways in which a communicable disease is transmitted from one person to another. These are:

• Coming in direct physical contact with a person who is carrying the infection or pathogen
• Consumption of contaminated fluids or foods
• Contact with infected saliva, mucus or blood
• Inhalation of infected droplets from the infected person’s sneeze or cough
• Getting bitten by an insect or an animal carrying the pathogen

Once the pathogen gets into the body of a healthy person, it starts to replicate and multiply. When the numbers increase, the person starts to show symptoms of a particular communicable disease. While some symptoms are due to the immune response of the body to the infection, severe symptoms may indicate the damage that the pathogen is causing to the body. In most cases, the symptoms are mild and subside after a few days. If the person is ailing with any condition, then the symptoms may become severe and potentially life-threatening.

Q7) What are the types of communicable diseases?    5

A7) Four major types of pathogens cause infections: viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists.

1. Virus

Viruses are small pathogens that contain genetic material. Unlike other pathogens, they lack the complex structure of cells. To replicate, it must enter the cells of other organisms. Once inside, they use a cell machine to make their own copy.

Includes several different viruses:

Rhinovirus

Rhinovirus is a group of viruses that cause the common cold. Symptoms of a cold include:

• Stuffy nose and runny nose
• Sore throat
• Headache

A person can catch a rhinovirus by inhaling contaminated droplets from another person's cough or sneeze.

Similarly, rhinovirus spreads by touching an item or surface that comes in contact with the virus and then touching the nose, eyes, or mouth.

Influenza

Influenza virus is an infectious disease that attacks the respiratory system. Some potential symptoms are:

• Fever or chills
• Stuffy nose and runny nose
• Sore throat
• Cough
• Headache
• Muscle and body pain
• Malaise

One can catch the flu virus in the same way that one catches the rhinovirus.

HIV

HIV attacks the host's immune system. This makes the person vulnerable to other infections and illnesses.

People can become infected with HIV as a result of contact with blood or other body fluids that contain the virus.

Symptoms of HIV can develop gradually and gradually. They include:

• Heat
• Cold
• Rash
• Mouth sores
• Sore throat
• Swelling of lymph nodes
• Night sweats
• Muscle pain
• Malaise

The only way to confirm that a person is infected with HIV is to have an HIV test.

There is no cure for HIV, but drugs help control the virus. Without such treatment, HIV can develop into AIDS.

b.    Bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic unicellular organisms. They exist in almost every environment on Earth, including the interior of the human body.

Many bacteria are harmless and some help the body function. However, bacteria can also cause infections that can damage the body.

Includes several different types of bacterial infections:

Salmonella and Escherichia coli

Salmonella and Escherichia coli are two types of bacteria that can infect the digestive system.

They usually spread to contaminated foods such as uncooked meat and unwashed fruits and vegetables.

Some of the symptoms of these infections are:

• Abdominal cramps
• Diarrhea
• Heat
• Headache

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection that primarily attacks the lungs. It can cause the following symptoms:

• Cough lasting more than 3 weeks
• Decreased appetite
• Unintentional weight loss
• Heat
• Cold
• Night sweats

A person can catch tuberculosis by inhaling small droplets or "aerosols" from an infected person's cough or sneeze. However, the American Lung Association states that although tuberculosis is contagious, it does not spread easily from person to person.

c.     Fungi

Fungi are a type of organism that includes yeast, mold, and mushrooms. There are millions of reliable sources of various fungi, but only about 300 cause harmful illnesses.

Fungal infections can occur anywhere on the body, but generally affect the skin and mucous membranes. Includes several different types of fungal infections:

Ringworm

Ringworm is a common fungal infection of the skin. A characteristic symptom of ringworm is a red or silver ring-shaped rash. It may be dry, scaly, or itchy.

By coming into close contact with someone who has ringworm, you can get ringworm in the following ways: Alternatively, you can catch it by sharing towels, bedding, or other personal belongings with someone who has ringworm.

Without treatment, ringworm can spread to other parts of the body.

Athlete's foot

Athlete's foot is a common fungal infection that affects the skin of the feet. White spots and itching usually occur between the toes.

People can contract athlete's foot by having direct contact with the person who has the fungus, or on the surface that has come into contact with the fungus.

For example, an individual may contract athlete's foot after walking barefoot in a changing room, shower, or pool.

d.    Protist

Protists are microorganisms that are usually composed of a single cell.

Some protists are parasites. That is, they live on or inside another organism and use the nutrients of that organism for their survival. Parasitic protists can cause a variety of illnesses.

Protozoan Plasmodium causes tropical disease malaria. Parasites can be bitten by mosquitoes and move from person to person.

Malaria causes the following symptoms:

• Fever and chills
• Headache
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Muscle pain

Without proper treatment, malaria can be life-threatening.

Q8) Explain the two types of transmission mode.    5

A8) Transmission mode

Infectious sicknesses are transmitted from individual to individual via direct or oblique contact. Certain varieties of viruses, bacteria, parasites and fungi can motive infectious sicknesses. Malaria, measles and respiration sicknesses are examples of infectious sicknesses.

A inclined host is someone who lacks resistance to a specific pathogenic agent to save you ailment withinside the occasion of or upon publicity to it.

I. Direct transmission

1. Direct contact - the contamination may be transmitted at once from pores and skin to pores and skin, from mucous membrane to mucous membrane, from mucous membrane to pores and skin of different humans or the equal individual. Example: Skin-to-pores and skin contact, which includes touching, kissing, or intercourse. Transmitted sicknesses - STDs and AIDS, leprosy, leptospirosis, pores and skin and eye infections.

2. Droplet contamination is an immediate projection of a sprig of droplets of saliva and nasopharyngeal secretions (airborne droplets of saliva or sputum) containing infectious organisms. Spraying droplets on coughs and sneezes can unfold the contamination.

3. Contact with soil. The pathogen may be received with the aid of using direct publicity to inclined tissue of the pathogen in soil, compost, or decaying plant matter. Examples: hookworm larvae, tetanus, mycosis, etc.

4. Inoculation of the pores and skin or mucous membranes - canine chew rabies virus, Hep. B virus via infected needles, syringes, etc.

5 . Transplacental (or vertical) transmission - TORCH dealers - (Toxoplasma Gondii, rubella virus, Cytomegalo virus and herpes virus). Varicella zoster virus, syphilis, hepatitis B, Coxsackie B and AIDS. Some of the non-dwelling dealers (eg, thalidomide, diethylstilbestrol) also can be transmitted vertically (from mom to child), affecting the embryo and inflicting fetal malformations.

2. Indirect transmission

This consists of many mechanisms which include conventional five Fs which includes

1. Vehicle. Indirect transmission of an infectious agent transmitted with the aid of using a vehicle. (or formites) contact the human frame or are swallowed

2. Vector-borne - A vector is described as an arthropod or any dwelling vector that incorporates an infectious agent to a inclined individual. Infectious dealers are transmitted with the aid of using insects, particularly blood-sucking ones. These consist of mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks. Insects end up inflamed after they feed on inflamed hosts which includes birds, animals, and humans. The ailment is transmitted with the aid of using the chew of an insect of a brand new host. For example. This is how malaria, West Nile virus and Lyme ailment unfold.

3. It is transmitted with the aid of using airborne droplets. Airborne ailment is any ailment as a result of airborne pathogens. Some infectious dealers can journey lengthy distances and continue to be airborne for lengthy intervals of time. Airborne sicknesses consist of tuberculosis, measles, Q fever, and respiration infections.

4. Carried with the aid of using fomite. Fomites are inanimate gadgets or substances, aside from water or meals, infected with the patient's infectious secretions and able to harbouring and transmitting an infectious agent to a healthful individual. Fomites consist of infected clothing, toys, towels, linens, cups, spoons, pencils, books, surgical dressings, etc. Fomites-borne sicknesses consist of typhoid fever, diphtheria, and pores and skin infections.

5.  Unclean palms and fingers. Hands are the maximum not unusual place medium via which pathogenic dealers are transferred to meals via the pores and skin, nose, intestines, etc., in addition to via different foods.

Q9) What are communicable diseases? Write the classification of communicable disease.                                                                                                                5

A9) A communicable disease is a disease that spreads from one person or animal to another. Pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi cause these diseases. This article will discuss what communicable diseases are, their symptoms, and how to avoid them. A communicable disease is any disease that passes between people or animals. People sometimes refer to communicable diseases as “infectious” or “transmissible” diseases. Pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists, cause communicable diseases. A person may develop a communicable disease after becoming infected by the pathogen. This may happen through:

• Direct contact with a person carrying the pathogen
• Contact with contaminated fluids, such as blood, mucus, or saliva
• Inhaling contaminated droplets from another person’s cough or sneeze
• Receiving a bite from an animal or insect carrying the pathogen
• Consuming contaminated water or foods

Once a pathogen has entered a person’s body, it will begin replicating. The individual may then begin to experience symptoms.

Some symptoms are a direct result of the pathogen damaging the body’s cells. Others are due to the body’s immune response to the infection.

Communicable diseases are usually mild, and symptoms pass after a few days. However, some can be serious and potentially life threatening.

Classification of infectious sicknesses

Epidemiological type of infectious sicknesses primarily based totally at the mode of transmission of the infectious agent, infectious sicknesses may be labelled as:

Waterborne sicknesses: are transmitted with the aid of using ingestion of infected water.

Foodborne illness: unfold with the aid of using ingestion of infected meals.

Diseases transmitted with the aid of using airborne droplets: are transmitted via the air.

Vector-borne sicknesses: transmitted with the aid of using vectors which includes mosquitoes and flies.

Vehicle

Indirect transmission of an infectious agent that takes place whilst a vehicle (or fomite) touches someone's frame or is swallowed.

Q10) What are non communicable diseases? Write its symptoms.  8

A10) NCDs or Non Communicable Diseases are known to most of us as deadly chronic disease and these often last for long duration. These diseases are quite harmful and can occur due to genetic factors, environmental factors, and physiological factors as well. Some of the most common non communicable diseases are heart strokes, cancer, asthma and diabetes. These kinds of disease affect people from the middle and low-income countries where about 32 million deaths occur due to the same.

Non Communicable Disease Definition

A non communicable disease can be termed as a disease or even a medical condition that is not caused due to any infections. These kinds of diseases do last for a very long time and also progress quite slowly. There are also times when the non communicable diseases can cause sudden or rapid deaths like strokes or cancers. Non communicable diseases are also synonymous with the term chronic and these are mostly distinguished by their cause and not their duration. People suffering from non communicable diseases need to opt for “chronic care management as most of these diseases develop slowly and can cause risk to patient’s life.

Non Communicable Disease Symptoms

In most of the cases, the signs or the symptoms of these non communicable diseases are the same. There are cases where there are no signs of any underlying disease and the cause is only known after the sudden death of the patient. There are different diseases under the non communicable diseases and each of them has their own symptoms.

For example, people suffering from cardiovascular diseases will show sudden symptoms like irregular heartbeat, sudden pain in the chest, disturbance in their cardiac cycle and also show signs of fever. Also, cancer will show signs like weakness, baldness or fatigue to name a few. Alzheimer’s disease shows a symptom of memory loss and this mostly occurs in people who are above the age of 60.

1. Diabetes

Diabetes limits the body's ability to process glucose normally. Type 1 diabetes, which exists from birth, destroys the pancreas by the immune system and causes glucose to accumulate in the bloodstream. Type 2 diabetes develops over time, causing cells to resist the effects of insulin and unhealthy levels of glucose in the bloodstream. Risk factors for type 2 diabetes are overweight or obesity.

2. Hypertension

This happens when an individual's blood pressure readings are consistently above 140/90. This can be caused by diabetes, smoking, excessive salt intake, obesity, or kidney disease.

3. Osteoporosis

This condition can cause bone loss, brittle bones, and increase the risk of damage. About 80 percent of people with osteoporosis are women. Additional factors that increase the risk of this disease are the presence of diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, inactivity, low levels of sex hormones, and smoking.

4. Alzheimer's disease

This condition causes dementia in the elderly or people over the age of 60. Symptoms of this condition can vary, but often include loss of memory, difficulty managing daily tasks and money, personality changes, loss of physical control, and delusions.

5. Heart disease

This is a very broad category of diseases that affect the circulatory system and the heart. This includes congenital heart disease, rhythmic irregularities, heart failure, heart attack, unstable angina, mitral valve prolapse, aortic regurgitation, cardiogenic shock, or endocarditis. It will be.

6. Fibromyalgia

In the list of non-communicable diseases, the disease damages the soft tissues in the body. It can cause patterns of sleep disorders, widespread pain, malaise, and arrhythmias. Symptoms progress over time and can cause cognitive and memory deficits, jaw pain, stuffy nose, headaches, and irritable bowel syndrome.

7. Lung cancer

Lung cancer often causes the growth of malignant cells in lung tissue as a result of exposure to pollutants or the use of tobacco products. 90% of lung cancer cases are caused by smoking with nonsmokers who have a very low risk of the disease.

8. Leukemia

Leukemia causes the body to produce abnormal blood cells that release malignant cells into the bloodstream. The bloodstream carries these malignant cells throughout the body and can affect other tissues such as the nervous system, skin, and liver. The disease is often associated with children, but most patients are actually men over the age of 60.

9. Skin cancer

Skin cancer occurs when UV light damages skin cells. It can appear anywhere on the body, but it is most common on the skin. People with less skin pigmentation, such as redheads, blondes, and blue eyes, are at increased risk of the disease. Limiting direct skin exposure can significantly reduce the risk of developing skin cancer, and early detection cures the disease by 95%.

10. Seizures or epilepsy

Seizures are caused by neurological dysfunction that causes abnormal electrical activity in the brain. These can be local or cause symptoms such as numbness due to the explosive firing of nerves in the brain. Tumors and brain damage can cause someone to develop the disease. There is no cure for epilepsy, but medications can help reduce the frequency of seizures.

Q11) What are non communicable diseases? State the causes of non communicable diseases.                                                                                                   8

A11) NCDs or Non Communicable Diseases are known to most of us as deadly chronic disease and these often last for long duration. These diseases are quite harmful and can occur due to genetic factors, environmental factors, and physiological factors as well. Some of the most common non communicable diseases are heart strokes, cancer, asthma and diabetes. These kinds of disease affect people from the middle and low-income countries where about 32 million deaths occur due to the same.

Non Communicable Disease Definition

A non communicable disease can be termed as a disease or even a medical condition that is not caused due to any infections. These kinds of diseases do last for a very long time and also progress quite slowly. There are also times when the non communicable diseases can cause sudden or rapid deaths like strokes or cancers. Non communicable diseases are also synonymous with the term chronic and these are mostly distinguished by their cause and not their duration. People suffering from non communicable diseases need to opt for “chronic care management as most of these diseases develop slowly and can cause risk to patient’s life.

Non communicable sicknesses can arise for a lot of reasons. This can show up because of lifestyle, tobacco, and smoking. Alcohol abuse, bodily state of being inactive and terrible weight-reduction plan also can motive non communicable sicknesses.

Non-communicable sicknesses also are inherited, in order that they may be inherited and surpassed on from technology to technology. This is one of the conditions wherein treating those situations will become challenging. In such instances, gene remedy is regularly recommended. The above elements can result in a few non-communicable sicknesses inclusive of most cancers, coronary heart problems, diabetes, and different continual sicknesses.

Know approximately the extraordinary sorts of non communicable sicknesses

Non communicable sicknesses, additionally referred to as NCDs, aren't transmitted and aren't contagious at all. The World Health Organization formerly said that NCDs are the main motive of loss of life worldwide, inflicting over 60% of human deaths. These sicknesses development very slowly or have continual signs and symptoms that during maximum instances continue to be unknown till the disorder progresses. Let's test the examples of non communicable sicknesses in this newsletter nowadays.

Q12) Give some examples of non communicable diseases. Define each. 5

A12) Before we pass in advance and find out about the diverse non communicable sicknesses, let's first recognize their danger elements. Some of the not unusual place danger elements are our environment, our manner of life, and our genetic origin. A character's age, gender and his / her publicity to air pollutants also can motive those sicknesses. Certain behaviours, inclusive of bodily state of being inactive or terrible weight-reduction plan, also can motive a number of the signs and symptoms related to them.

Diabetes: Diabetes is thought to be one of the maximum not unusual place non-communicable sicknesses. A quantity of human beings, irrespective of their age, nowadays be afflicted by the same. Diabetes is a situation where in the body's cap potential to procedure glucose via way of means of hand is reduced. There are  sorts of diabetes - kind 1 and kind 2. Type 1 diabetes is regularly gift from birth, and kind 2 diabetes most usually develops with age. Both of them motive glucose to accumulate withinside the bloodstream, which may be very risky. Overweight human beings are at better danger.

Hypertension: Hypertension, or excessive blood stress as it's far usually called, happens while a character's blood stress is excessive and exceeds 140/90. Hypertension may be as a result of an current clinical situation, inclusive of diabetes or kidney disorder. Lifestyle also can motive excessive blood stress.

Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is a situation that could motive a surprising lower in bone mass, making your bones very fragile and inflicting damage. Women regularly be afflicted by this situation, and the presence of different situations, inclusive of rheumatoid arthritis, also can motive the same.

Alzheimer's disorder. Alzheimer's disorder is thought to motive dementia in older human beings. The signs and symptoms of this situation may also range from character to character, and they will locate it tough to deal with their each day responsibilities or go through drastic persona changes.

Heart disorder: Heart disorder regularly influences the coronary heart or circulatory system. Heart situations can encompass coronary heart failure and seizure, congenital coronary heart defects, carcinogenic shock, or maybe arrhythmias. If you abruptly experience vulnerable and word a alternate on your coronary heart rate, it is time to seek advice from your health practitioner and get examined for coronary heart disorder.

Fibromyalgia: This disorder is taken into consideration one of the maximum dangerous because it damages the smooth tissues of the body. It also can result in sleep disturbances or maybe motive an abnormal heartbeat. In addition, signs and symptoms of this could development over time, which in flip can motive problem remembering matters or motive chronic headaches.

Lung most cancers: Lung most cancers is a sort of most cancers wherein mobileular boom happens with inside the tissues of the lungs. This can show up while someone is closely uncovered to numerous pollutants, in addition to via tobacco use. It is likewise said that over 90% of lung most cancers instances arise in those who often smoke. Non-people who smoke are at low threat.

Leukemia: When someone is struck with leukemia, the frame has a tendency to provide extra blood cells after which the malignant cells input the bloodstream. These cells are then carried via the bloodstream via the frame, and this additionally influences different tissues. This specially applies to guys over 60 years old.

Skin most cancers: Skin most cancers happens while dangerous UV rays reason harm to pores and skin cells. This can show up on nearly any place of ​​the pores and skin. People with low pigmentation are recognised to be at better threat of the same. In addition, nearly 95% of pores and skin cancers are stated to be curable.

In maximum instances, pores and skin most cancers happens in a place this is extra uncovered to sunlight. These cancers additionally reason occupational threat elements. For example, someone operating in a manufacturing unit that makes use of dangerous radiation or chemical compounds is much more likely to increase most cancers.

Epilepsy or Seizures: Seizures can arise because of a neurological malfunction. This may be because of "bizarre electric interest" withinside the mind. While there's no everlasting therapy for this, medicinal drugs may be taken often to lessen the frequency of attacks. Seizures can best arise in a few elements of the frame and reason numbness withinside the affected place. People with mind harm or maybe tumours can regularly be afflicted by epilepsy or seizures.

Apart from the above, there are some of different non-communicable sicknesses that could get up from genetic troubles. In many instances, because of hereditary elements, those sicknesses are transmitted from dad and mom to their siblings and unfold alongside all generations. Environmental sicknesses are regularly resulting from publicity to dangerous environments, negative way of life choices, or negative weight-reduction plan. Some of the listing of such non communicable sicknesses are given below.

Q13) How non communicable diseases are prevented?   5

A13) An important way to control NCDs is to focus on reducing the risk factors associated with these diseases. Low-cost solutions exist for governments and other stakeholders to reduce the common modifiable risk factors. Monitoring progress and trends of NCDs and their risk is important for guiding policy and priorities.

To lessen the impact of NCDs on individuals and society, a comprehensive approach is needed requiring all sectors, including health, finance, transport, education, agriculture, planning and others, to collaborate to reduce the risks associated with NCDs, and to promote interventions to prevent and control them.

Investing in better management of NCDs is critical. Management of NCDs includes detecting, screening and treating these diseases, and providing access to palliative care for people in need. High impact essential NCD interventions can be delivered through a primary health care approach to strengthen early detection and timely treatment. Evidence shows such interventions are excellent economic investments because, if provided early to patients, they can reduce the need for more expensive treatment.

Countries with inadequate health insurance coverage are unlikely to provide universal access to essential NCD interventions. NCD management interventions are essential for achieving the global target of a 25% relative reduction in the risk of premature mortality from NCDs by 2025, and the SDG target of a one-third reduction in premature deaths from NCDs by 2030.

Q14) How can non communicable diseases be treated?    5

A14) People can follow a strict daily routine and try to avoid the occurrence of non communicable diseases. The diagnosis and treatment of these non communicable diseases can depend on the symptoms and medical conditions you may be exposed to. Treatment begins with a correct diagnosis and the patient may need to undergo several tests before starting treatment.

For example, if you are experiencing irregular heartbeat and weakness, you may be asked to undergo an EKG and 2D echo. This will help diagnose a heart attack or heart attack.

Likewise, non-communicable cancers are also treated with chemotherapy and other methods. In addition, treatment may depend on the stage of the cancer and may include radiation therapy or even medication. Certain cancers, such as breast cancer or basal cell carcinoma, may include creams and regular monitoring.

Now that you know all about non communicable diseases and how and why they occur, it's time to take preventive measures to stay away from them.